Volume 7, Issue 2 (June 2022)
J Environ Health Sustain Dev 2022, 7(2): 1623-1631 |
Back to browse issues page
Download citation:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
Eslami H, Ayeneh Heidari F, Salari M, Esmaeili A, Nassab Hosseini A, Dolatabadi M. Investigation of Corrosion and Scaling Potential in Drinking Water in Rafsanjan, Iran. J Environ Health Sustain Dev 2022; 7 (2) :1623-1631
URL: http://jehsd.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-399-en.html
URL: http://jehsd.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-399-en.html
Hadi Eslami 
, Fatemeh Ayeneh Heidari , Mahnaz Salari , Abbas Esmaeili , Abdolreza Nassab Hosseini , Maryam Dolatabadi *
, Fatemeh Ayeneh Heidari , Mahnaz Salari , Abbas Esmaeili , Abdolreza Nassab Hosseini , Maryam Dolatabadi *
Environmental Science and Technology Research Center, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran.
Full-Text [PDF 677 kb]
(442 Downloads)
| Abstract (HTML) (1133 Views)
.PNG)
Figure 1: LI, RI, AI, and PI index versus analyzed samples
Table 4: Comparison of corrosion and scaling indices with other studies in Iran
Full-Text: (395 Views)
Investigation of Corrosion and Scaling Potential in Drinking Water in Rafsanjan, Iran
Hadi Eslami 1, Fatemeh Ayeneh Heidari 2, Mahnaz Salari 2, Abbas Esmaeili 3, Abdolreza Nassab Hosseini 3, Maryam Dolatabadi 4*
1 Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Occupational Safety and Health Research Center, NICICO, World Safety Organization and Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
2 Student Research Committee, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
3 Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Occupational Environment Research Center, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
4 Environmental Science and Technology Research Center, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran.
Hadi Eslami 1, Fatemeh Ayeneh Heidari 2, Mahnaz Salari 2, Abbas Esmaeili 3, Abdolreza Nassab Hosseini 3, Maryam Dolatabadi 4*
1 Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Occupational Safety and Health Research Center, NICICO, World Safety Organization and Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
2 Student Research Committee, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
3 Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Occupational Environment Research Center, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
4 Environmental Science and Technology Research Center, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran.
| A R T I C L E I N F O | ABSTRACT | |
| ORIGINAL ARTICLE | Introduction: Corrosion and scaling are important factors affecting drinking water quality, causing health and economic problems. This study aimed to investigate the indicators of corrosion and scaling in Rafsanjan drinking water. Materials and Methods: The present descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in winter 2018 and spring 2019 in Rafsanjan. The 56 samples were randomly taken from the drinking water distribution and transmission networks. Physicochemical parameters, such as pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), calcium hardness (CH), electrical conductivity (EC), and alkalinity were measured. Finally, corrosion and scaling indices, including langelier index (LI), ryznar index (RI), aggressiveness index (AI), and Puckorius index (PI) were calculated and analyzed. Results: The mean temperature, pH, CH, TH, TDS, alkalinity, and EC were 17.79 ± 0.80 °C, 8.08 ± 0.11, 56.34 ± 2.72 mg/L.CaCO3, 140.86 ± 6.81 mg/L.CaCO3, 530 ± 110 mg/L, 181.21 ± 13.65 mg/L, and 840 ± 180 µs/cm, respectively. The mean corrosion and scaling indices, including LI = 0.18 ± 0.12, RI = 7.72 ± 0.14, AI = 12.09 ± 0.11, and finally PI = 7.96 ± 0.10 were obtained. Conclusion: Based on the obtained data, drinking water in the transmission and distribution network of Rafsanjan has scaling properties. Water scaling and deposition causes problems, such as blockage of water transmission and distribution pipes, reduction of flow rate and increase of pressure drop in the network, and finally increase of water facilities operation costs. Therefore, measures should be considered to control the scaling of water in this region. |
|
Article History: Received: 28 March 2022 Accepted: 20 May 2022 |
||
*Corresponding Author: Maryam Dolatabadi Email: dolatabadimaryam222@gmail.com Tel: +989131965314 |
||
Keywords: Corrosion, Drinking Water, Scaling, Water Quality, Rafsanjan City. |
Citation: Eslami H, Ayeneh Heidari F, Salari M, et al. Investigation of Corrosion and Scaling Potential in Drinking Water in Rafsanjan, Iran. J Environ Health Sustain Dev. 2022; 7(2): 1623-31.
Introduction
Access to safe and sufficient water is one of the criteria for development, health, and well-being in any society 1, 2. Water quality is affected by water supply sources, treatment systems, water distribution networks, and etc. Therefore, community health and disease prevention need to identify and control the quality of drinking water resources 3, 4. One of the effective factors in changing the physicochemical properties of water is water corrosion and scaling 5. Factors affecting corrosion and deposition include physical factors (flow rate, pH, and temperature), chemical factors alkalinity, hardness, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), and the presence of some ions, including sulfate and chloride and biological factors, which are usually affected by iron oxidizing bacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria 6, 7.
Corrosion in water transmission and distribution systems, in addition to causing a relatively unpleasant taste and odor, dissolves some heavy metals, such as cadmium, copper, lead, and arsenic into the water, causing various diseases. On the other hand, it causes corrosion of water pipes, reducing the pump's life, valves, and tank capacity 8, 9. Finally, corrosion and decay of water transmission and distribution systems cause water leakage, which is one of the significant causes of water losses in the water supply network 10. Scaling is a process in which divalent cations, such as calcium and magnesium react with other water-soluble materials and form a layer in the inner pipe wall. The most common scaling layer is composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 9, 11. The deposition process can cause problems, such as pipes blockage, flow rate reduction, and pressure drop increase in the network, which will also increase the water facility's operation cost 12.
Corrosion and scaling control according to the guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO) is a necessity for providing safe drinking water in communities 3. One of the methods for determining the drinking water's corrosion and scaling potential is the use of corrosion and scaling or stability indices 13, 14. These indices include Langelier index (LI), Ryznar index (RI), Aggressiveness index (AI), and Puckorius index (PI), used in other studies for evaluation of water corrosion and scaling 15.
The study by Davil et al. on the investigation of corrosion potential and scaling of drinking water in Ghamsar city was performed using corrosion and scaling indices. The measuring results of effective physicochemical parameters in determining the drinking water corrosion indices in Ghamsar city were compared with existing standards 16. The study conducted by Shahbazi et al., examined the indicators of corrosion and deposition of water in Marand-Iran. The results of these researchers showed that more than 50% of the samples in summer and spring have corrosive properties 12. Also, Teimouri et al. assessed corrosion or scaling potential in supply sources, reservoir, and water distribution network of Kian city located in Chaharmahal Bakhtiari province, using LI and RI indicators. All effective parameters in estimating corrosion indices except mean temperature and pH were outside the standard range. Calculations related to LI and RI corrosion indices in the study showed that the mean corrosion rates were -0.68 and 8.52, respectively. The results showed that the water of Kian city is corrosive 17. The best workable solutions for the studied water supply systems to reduce the problems caused by water corrosion can be the control of water pH and chlorination mechanism, as well as the use and installation of corrosion-resistant pipes 17.
Rafsanjan is situated in the north of Kerman province, Iran. The region has an annual precipitation of about 81 mm, and it has hot and dry climate. Sarcheshmeh copper mine, which is considered to be the second-largest copper deposit worldwide, is situated south of Rafsanjan. One of the main products of Rafsanjan is pistachio, which is known as the center of pistachio cultivation in Iran and one of the most important pistachio production areas worldwide. The rivers in this area are mostly seasonal, because of low rainfall and precipitation, indicating the dependence of the study region on groundwater. Therefore, the most important source of water supply in industrial, agricultural, and domestic sectors in Rafsanjan city is groundwater. However, in recent years, groundwater irregular water withdrawal has been growing, which has affected the groundwater of aquifer both quantitatively and qualitatively. It demonstrates the critical point of this study and the role of groundwater in the region 18, 19. Therefore, it is necessary to study the physicochemical quality of water to determine the phenomenon of corrosion and scaling that causes health and economic damage. Therefore, in the present study, physicochemical parameters were studied as water corrosion and scaling potential in the Rafsanjan transmission and distribution network.
Materials and Methods
The study area
Rafsanjan is located in the central region of Iran, 110 km west of Kerman, in a low-altitude area with an area of 5459.36 Km2. The city is located between longitudes 54° 30' to 56° 30' and latitude 29° 52' to 29 ° 15'. The region climate is arid and semi-arid, according to the De Martonne method, with an average annual rainfall of 80.3 mm.
Sampling and analysis
In this study, sampling was done randomly from reservoirs and the drinking water distribution network of Rafsanjan in winter (28 samples) and spring (28 samples) in 2018-2019. The samples were collected in polyethylene containers with 1 liter of effective volume and in accordance with the standard method. The desired parameters, including pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), calcium hardness (CH), EC, and alkalinity of the samples were measured. All the chemicals used in the study were of high purity and laboratory grade. The pH and temperature of the sample were measured at the sampling site (Hanna pH meter and temperature sensors, model HI207, made in Italy). The TDS and EC were measured using EC meter (Hanna EC meter model HI9813-5, made in Italy), and TH and CH were measured by the complexometric method using EDTA standard solution in the presence of black chromium and murexide indicator 15, 20.
Studied indicators
Corrosion and scaling indices, LI, RI, AI, and PI were used to determine the corrosion and scaling potential of water in the Rafsanjan transmission and distribution network. The reason for using different indicators was to increase the study accuracy and control the laboratory errors. Table 1 presents the studied corrosion and scaling indices.
Access to safe and sufficient water is one of the criteria for development, health, and well-being in any society 1, 2. Water quality is affected by water supply sources, treatment systems, water distribution networks, and etc. Therefore, community health and disease prevention need to identify and control the quality of drinking water resources 3, 4. One of the effective factors in changing the physicochemical properties of water is water corrosion and scaling 5. Factors affecting corrosion and deposition include physical factors (flow rate, pH, and temperature), chemical factors alkalinity, hardness, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), and the presence of some ions, including sulfate and chloride and biological factors, which are usually affected by iron oxidizing bacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria 6, 7.
Corrosion in water transmission and distribution systems, in addition to causing a relatively unpleasant taste and odor, dissolves some heavy metals, such as cadmium, copper, lead, and arsenic into the water, causing various diseases. On the other hand, it causes corrosion of water pipes, reducing the pump's life, valves, and tank capacity 8, 9. Finally, corrosion and decay of water transmission and distribution systems cause water leakage, which is one of the significant causes of water losses in the water supply network 10. Scaling is a process in which divalent cations, such as calcium and magnesium react with other water-soluble materials and form a layer in the inner pipe wall. The most common scaling layer is composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 9, 11. The deposition process can cause problems, such as pipes blockage, flow rate reduction, and pressure drop increase in the network, which will also increase the water facility's operation cost 12.
Corrosion and scaling control according to the guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO) is a necessity for providing safe drinking water in communities 3. One of the methods for determining the drinking water's corrosion and scaling potential is the use of corrosion and scaling or stability indices 13, 14. These indices include Langelier index (LI), Ryznar index (RI), Aggressiveness index (AI), and Puckorius index (PI), used in other studies for evaluation of water corrosion and scaling 15.
The study by Davil et al. on the investigation of corrosion potential and scaling of drinking water in Ghamsar city was performed using corrosion and scaling indices. The measuring results of effective physicochemical parameters in determining the drinking water corrosion indices in Ghamsar city were compared with existing standards 16. The study conducted by Shahbazi et al., examined the indicators of corrosion and deposition of water in Marand-Iran. The results of these researchers showed that more than 50% of the samples in summer and spring have corrosive properties 12. Also, Teimouri et al. assessed corrosion or scaling potential in supply sources, reservoir, and water distribution network of Kian city located in Chaharmahal Bakhtiari province, using LI and RI indicators. All effective parameters in estimating corrosion indices except mean temperature and pH were outside the standard range. Calculations related to LI and RI corrosion indices in the study showed that the mean corrosion rates were -0.68 and 8.52, respectively. The results showed that the water of Kian city is corrosive 17. The best workable solutions for the studied water supply systems to reduce the problems caused by water corrosion can be the control of water pH and chlorination mechanism, as well as the use and installation of corrosion-resistant pipes 17.
Rafsanjan is situated in the north of Kerman province, Iran. The region has an annual precipitation of about 81 mm, and it has hot and dry climate. Sarcheshmeh copper mine, which is considered to be the second-largest copper deposit worldwide, is situated south of Rafsanjan. One of the main products of Rafsanjan is pistachio, which is known as the center of pistachio cultivation in Iran and one of the most important pistachio production areas worldwide. The rivers in this area are mostly seasonal, because of low rainfall and precipitation, indicating the dependence of the study region on groundwater. Therefore, the most important source of water supply in industrial, agricultural, and domestic sectors in Rafsanjan city is groundwater. However, in recent years, groundwater irregular water withdrawal has been growing, which has affected the groundwater of aquifer both quantitatively and qualitatively. It demonstrates the critical point of this study and the role of groundwater in the region 18, 19. Therefore, it is necessary to study the physicochemical quality of water to determine the phenomenon of corrosion and scaling that causes health and economic damage. Therefore, in the present study, physicochemical parameters were studied as water corrosion and scaling potential in the Rafsanjan transmission and distribution network.
Materials and Methods
The study area
Rafsanjan is located in the central region of Iran, 110 km west of Kerman, in a low-altitude area with an area of 5459.36 Km2. The city is located between longitudes 54° 30' to 56° 30' and latitude 29° 52' to 29 ° 15'. The region climate is arid and semi-arid, according to the De Martonne method, with an average annual rainfall of 80.3 mm.
Sampling and analysis
In this study, sampling was done randomly from reservoirs and the drinking water distribution network of Rafsanjan in winter (28 samples) and spring (28 samples) in 2018-2019. The samples were collected in polyethylene containers with 1 liter of effective volume and in accordance with the standard method. The desired parameters, including pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), calcium hardness (CH), EC, and alkalinity of the samples were measured. All the chemicals used in the study were of high purity and laboratory grade. The pH and temperature of the sample were measured at the sampling site (Hanna pH meter and temperature sensors, model HI207, made in Italy). The TDS and EC were measured using EC meter (Hanna EC meter model HI9813-5, made in Italy), and TH and CH were measured by the complexometric method using EDTA standard solution in the presence of black chromium and murexide indicator 15, 20.
Studied indicators
Corrosion and scaling indices, LI, RI, AI, and PI were used to determine the corrosion and scaling potential of water in the Rafsanjan transmission and distribution network. The reason for using different indicators was to increase the study accuracy and control the laboratory errors. Table 1 presents the studied corrosion and scaling indices.
Table 1: Corrosion and scaling indices
| Indices | Equation | Interpretation | Reference | |
| LI |
LI = pH- pHs
|
0 > LI | Saturated/corrosive | 21-23 |
| 0 = LI | Neutral | |||
| 0 < LI | Supersaturation/scaling | |||
| RI | RI = 2pHs- pH | 6 ˃ RI | 24, 25 | |
| 6 < RI < 7 | Neutral | |||
| RI > 7 | scaling | |||
| AI | AI = pH + log[(Alk)(H)] | AI ˂ 10 | High corrosive | 15, 26, 27 |
| 10 ˂ AI ˂ 12 | Moderate corrosive | |||
| AI ˃ 12 | Low corrosive | |||
| PI | PSI = 2 (pHeq) –pHs pHeq = 1.465 × log10[T.ALK] + 4.54 |
PI ˂ 6 | Moderate corrosive | 15, 28 |
| PI = 6 | Neutral | |||
| PI ˃ 6 | scaling | |||
LI is one of the most common indicators for determining scaling and corrosion in water supply networks, which is based on the effect of pH on the formation of calcium carbonate scaling. The saturation pH for calcium carbonate in water is known as the saturation pH or pH, at which the pH of the protective layer is in equilibrium. This index is important because calcium carbonate is used as a protective layer, as a valuable parameter of network monitoring. RI was presented with a slight change in the LI. Based on this index, the deposition or corrosion status of the steel pipe is determined. The PI provides the maximum sedimentable scaling under equilibrium conditions or in terms of water buffering capacity. The AI was developed at the request of US consulting engineers to select the appropriate type of asbestos cement pipe and ensure the structural durability of these pipes 29, 30.
Results
To investigate the water corrosion and scaling potential of the Rafsanjan transmission and distribution network, physicochemical parameters of water, including temperature, pH, CH, TH, TDS, alkalinity, and EC were measured. Statistical indicators, such as the minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation (SD) of the mentioned parameters are presented in Table 2.
Then, corrosion and scaling indices were studied and calculated using the equation mentioned in Table 1. The calculations showed that the mean and SD of LI, RI, AI, PI were 0.18 ± 0.12, 7.72 ± 0.14, 12.09 ± 0.11, and 7.96 ± 0.10, respectively. Table 3 reveals the obtained statistical indices, including the minimum, maximum, mean, and SD of the studied
indices.
Figure 1 shows the LI, RI, AI, and PI obtained for each of the taken water samples (58 samples in total).
Results
To investigate the water corrosion and scaling potential of the Rafsanjan transmission and distribution network, physicochemical parameters of water, including temperature, pH, CH, TH, TDS, alkalinity, and EC were measured. Statistical indicators, such as the minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation (SD) of the mentioned parameters are presented in Table 2.
Then, corrosion and scaling indices were studied and calculated using the equation mentioned in Table 1. The calculations showed that the mean and SD of LI, RI, AI, PI were 0.18 ± 0.12, 7.72 ± 0.14, 12.09 ± 0.11, and 7.96 ± 0.10, respectively. Table 3 reveals the obtained statistical indices, including the minimum, maximum, mean, and SD of the studied
indices.
Figure 1 shows the LI, RI, AI, and PI obtained for each of the taken water samples (58 samples in total).
Table 2: Statistical characteristics of the sampled water physicochemical parameters
| SD | Mean | Min | Max | Unit | Iranian standard | Iranian standard | Parameters |
| Optimal Value | Optimal Value | ||||||
| 0.80 | 17.78 | 16.20 | 18.90 | °C | - | - | T |
| 0.11 | 8.08 | 7.90 | 8.30 | - | 6.5-9 | 6.5-9.0 | pH |
| 2.72 | 56.34 | 52.00 | 61.60 | mg/L | 75 | 75 | Ca2+ |
| 6.81 | 140.86 | 130.00 | 145.00 | mg/L, CaCO3 | 200 | 200 | TH |
| 110 | 530 | 420 | 710 | mg/L | 1000 | 1000 | TDS |
| 13.65 | 181.21 | 160.00 | 204.00 | mg/L | - | - | ALK |
| 180 | 840 | 660 | 1120 | µs/cm | - | - | EC |
Table 3: Statistical parameters of corrosion indices and sampled water
| SD | Mean | Min | Max | Index |
| 0.12 | 0.18 | 0.00 | 0.43 | LI |
| 0.14 | 7.72 | 7.44 | 7.94 | RI |
| 0.11 | 12.09 | 11.93 | 1234 | AI |
| 0.10 | 7.96 | 7.81 | 8.17 | PI |
Figure 1: LI, RI, AI, and PI index versus analyzed samples
Discussion
Studies have shown that significant amounts of treated water are wasted as a result of pipe leaks in the water distribution networks. The water loss rate in some countries, such as Iran is more than 20% 31. One of the effective factors in water loss is leakages caused by corrosion of water distribution systems. Therefore, monitoring the chemical quality of water and controlling its equilibrium can increase the useful life of water supply facilities and reduce the possibility of water leakage and waste to a large extent 32. These requirements are very important in water-scarce countries, such as Iran. On the other hand, scaling in the inner wall of pipes is one of the important issues that cause distribution systems pressure drop and in addition to consumer dissatisfaction will impose high pumping costs for distribution systems. These conditions also reduce the efficiency of distribution systems as well as the efficiency of heating systems and hot water suppliers 15,33.
Comparison of the studied physicochemical parameters with the WHO standards showed that the pH and temperature parameters are within the desired range of the set standard. However, the mean CH, TH, and TDS of the samples were lower than the desired level. The study results on LI showed that more than 99% of the samples had the LI above zero. According to the LI interpretation, when this index is higher than zero (LI < 0), water has scaling and supersaturation properties. Therefore, according to this index, the studied water samples showed water scaling evidence in the transmission and distribution network.
In the RI interpretation, when the index is less than 6, water has a corrosion effect, and when it is between 6 and 7, water has no scaling and corrosion properties. In other words, the water is balanced, and when it is more than 7, it has scaling properties. The results obtained for the RI showed that all the samples had an index higher than 7 (RI > 7). The AI results showed that 23% of the samples had an index value in the range of 10 to 12, and 77% had greater than 12. As stated in the interpretation of this index, when the index is 10 ˂ AI ˂ 12, water has moderate corrosion, and when it is more than 12, water has low corrosion. Therefore, it can be concluded that the water of Rafsanjan city has low corrosion based on this index. It should be noted that this index is only for asbestos-cement pipes in the distribution network, so it is not a suitable indicator for the part of the network that has galvanized pipes 30.
The obtained results in the case of PI showed that 100% of the samples had a PI value higher than 6. Therefore, when the index value is more than 6, the studied water has scaling properties. It should be noted that the PI is more accurate and appropriate for waters with a pH > 8 than other indicators, since in more than 92% of the samples, the pH of the water is more than 8, so the use of this index is suitable for the studied samples. The study of the relationship between the type of soil layers and the chemical quality of water showed that the soil texture of Rafsanjan is geologically composed of calcareous layers and increases the hardness and the probability of scaling in water 34, 35. Table 4 represents the indicators studied in other studies for better comparison.
Studies have shown that significant amounts of treated water are wasted as a result of pipe leaks in the water distribution networks. The water loss rate in some countries, such as Iran is more than 20% 31. One of the effective factors in water loss is leakages caused by corrosion of water distribution systems. Therefore, monitoring the chemical quality of water and controlling its equilibrium can increase the useful life of water supply facilities and reduce the possibility of water leakage and waste to a large extent 32. These requirements are very important in water-scarce countries, such as Iran. On the other hand, scaling in the inner wall of pipes is one of the important issues that cause distribution systems pressure drop and in addition to consumer dissatisfaction will impose high pumping costs for distribution systems. These conditions also reduce the efficiency of distribution systems as well as the efficiency of heating systems and hot water suppliers 15,33.
Comparison of the studied physicochemical parameters with the WHO standards showed that the pH and temperature parameters are within the desired range of the set standard. However, the mean CH, TH, and TDS of the samples were lower than the desired level. The study results on LI showed that more than 99% of the samples had the LI above zero. According to the LI interpretation, when this index is higher than zero (LI < 0), water has scaling and supersaturation properties. Therefore, according to this index, the studied water samples showed water scaling evidence in the transmission and distribution network.
In the RI interpretation, when the index is less than 6, water has a corrosion effect, and when it is between 6 and 7, water has no scaling and corrosion properties. In other words, the water is balanced, and when it is more than 7, it has scaling properties. The results obtained for the RI showed that all the samples had an index higher than 7 (RI > 7). The AI results showed that 23% of the samples had an index value in the range of 10 to 12, and 77% had greater than 12. As stated in the interpretation of this index, when the index is 10 ˂ AI ˂ 12, water has moderate corrosion, and when it is more than 12, water has low corrosion. Therefore, it can be concluded that the water of Rafsanjan city has low corrosion based on this index. It should be noted that this index is only for asbestos-cement pipes in the distribution network, so it is not a suitable indicator for the part of the network that has galvanized pipes 30.
The obtained results in the case of PI showed that 100% of the samples had a PI value higher than 6. Therefore, when the index value is more than 6, the studied water has scaling properties. It should be noted that the PI is more accurate and appropriate for waters with a pH > 8 than other indicators, since in more than 92% of the samples, the pH of the water is more than 8, so the use of this index is suitable for the studied samples. The study of the relationship between the type of soil layers and the chemical quality of water showed that the soil texture of Rafsanjan is geologically composed of calcareous layers and increases the hardness and the probability of scaling in water 34, 35. Table 4 represents the indicators studied in other studies for better comparison.
Table 4: Comparison of corrosion and scaling indices with other studies in Iran
| Reference | Studied area | Water characteristic | Mean ± SD | Parameters |
| 15 | Yazd -Ardakan plain | Low to medium corrosion | 0.30 ± 0.31 | LI |
| 7.12 ± 0.57 | RI | |||
| 12.74 ± 0.38 | AI | |||
| 9.5 ± 0.69 | PI | |||
| 36 | Takab | Nearly corrosive | 0.22 | LI |
| 7.6 | RI | |||
| 12.63 | AI | |||
| 7.69 | PI | |||
| 37 | Qom | Corrosive | 1.62 ± 0.11 | LI |
| 10.50 ± 0.17 | RI | |||
| 9.92 ± 0.13 | AI | |||
| 12.04 ± 0.14 | PI | |||
| 38 | Orumieh | Very corrosive | -1.94 | LI |
| 12.04 | RI | |||
| - | AI | |||
| 12.20 | PI | |||
| 39 | Babol | Corrosive | 0.14 | LI |
| 7.28 | RI | |||
| - | AI | |||
| 6.17 | PI | |||
| 26 | Chabahar - Sistan and Baluchestan | Neutral | 0.50 ± 0.34 | LI |
| 6.76 ± 0.6 | RI | |||
| AI | ||||
| 6.5 ± 0.99 | PI | |||
| 40 | Kerman | Scaling | 0 | LI |
| < 7 | RI | |||
| < 12 | AI | |||
| < 6 | PI |
Shahbazi et al. reported that time changes can alter the water quality, so, the summer samples compared to spring had low quality 12. Kinsela et al. conducted a study on the corrosion and scaling potential of drinking water wells in the northern and central regions of Australia. Their results showed that 63% of wells in the northern region had the potential for scaling and formation of calcium carbonate scaling. In arid and central areas, the deposition potential exceeded 91. To control the scaling process, these researchers proposed low-cost and simple technology management solutions, such as diluting groundwater with rainwater, changing reservoir water pH to about 0.7, and using sediment-inhibiting compounds 41. A study in Kerman conducted by Malakootian et al. showed that the Kerman water has scaling properties 42. One of the reasons is the soil texture of the region, which contains carbonate salts. Considering that the city of Rafsanjan is one of the cities of Kerman province, the obtained results confirm this
issue 40, 43.
Conclusion
Corrosion and scaling phenomenons are important issues that should be carefully studied in monitoring water distribution systems. Not paying attention to the chemical quality of water in terms of chemical balance (corrosion and scaling) and the emergence of any of the mentioned phenomena can cause many health and economic damage. According to the results, the temperature and pH parameters were in the desired range, and the parameters of CH, TH, and TDS were below the desired level of the Iranian standard. Therefore, precise quality control of parameters effective in scaling is necessary. According to the obtained results from the calculations related to corrosion and scaling indices in the samples taken from the Rafsanjan water distribution and transmission network, LI, RI, AI, and PI confirm the scaling properties of water in this region. One of the reasons for the scaling characteristic of that city can be attributed to the existence of calcareous structures as well as the formation of lime marls, sandstones (clastic sedimentary), and red conglomerates in the soil of the Rafsanjan region. This increases the TH and TDS of the solute and ultimately affects the deposition state of water.
Acknowledgment
This article is the result of a research
project (97344) with an ethics code IR.RUMS.REC.1398.015 approved by Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences. The authors would like to thank all the officials of Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences.
Funding
This study was funded by Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
It is an Open-Access article distributed in accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon this work for commercial use.
References
1. Eslami H, Esmaeili A, Ehrampoush MH, et al. Simultaneous presence of poly titanium chloride and Fe2O3-Mn2O3 nanocomposite in the enhanced coagulation for high rate As (V) removal from contaminated water. J Water Process Eng. 2020;36:101342.
2. Mahmoudabadi TZ, Ehrampoush MH, Talebi P, et al. Comparison of poly ferric chloride and poly titanium tetrachloride in coagulation and flocculation process for paper and cardboard wastewater treatment. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2021;28(21):27262-72.
3. Porsana ZP, Zareib A, Alimohammadia M. Evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential of drinking groundwater in Gonbad-e Kavus. Desalin Water Treat. 2020;195:19-25.
4. Almodaresi SA, Mohammadrezaei M, Dolatabadi M, et al. Qualitative analysis of groundwater quality indicators based on schuler and wilcox diagrams: IDW and kriging models. J Environ Health Sustain Dev. 2019;4(4):903-12.
5. Zhang H, Zhao L, Liu D, et al. Early period corrosion and scaling characteristics of ductile iron pipe for ground water supply with sodium hypochlorite disinfection. Water Res. 2020;176:115742.
6. Eslami H, Mahmoudabadi TZ. Modified coagulation processes using polyferric chloride and polytitanium tetrachloride for the removal of anionic dye from aqueous solution. Int J Environ Sci Technol. 2021:1-8.
7. Nalivan OA, Mollaefar E, Soltani E, et al. Data on assessment of corrosion-scaling potential and chemical parameters of groundwater quality for industrial and agricultural sectors in the Piranshahr Watershed in the West Azerbaijan province, Iran. Data in brief. 2019;27:104627.
8. Taghavi M, Mohammadi MH, Radfard M, et al. Assessment of scaling and corrosion potential of drinking water resources of Iranshahr. MethodsX. 2019;6:278-83.
9. Tang C, Rygaard M, Rosshaug PS, et al. Evaluation and comparison of centralized drinking water softening technologies: Effects on water quality indicators. Water Res. 2021;203:117439.
10. Asghari FB, Jaafari J, Yousefi M, et al. Evaluation of water corrosion, scaling extent and heterotrophic plate count bacteria in asbestos and polyethylene pipes in drinking water distribution system. Hum Ecol Risk Assess. 2018;24(4):1138-49.
11. Mokhtaria Z, Yousefzadehb S, Safaria M, et al. Assessment of the drinking water quality of a rural distribution network in the north of Iran by corrosion and scaling indices. Desalin Water Treat. 2020;206:27-33.
12. Shahbazi H, Mosaferi M, Firuzi P, et al. Spatio-temporal variation of WQI, scaling and corrosion indices, and principal component analysis in rural areas of Marand, Iran. Groundw. Sustain. Dev. 2020;11:100480.
13. Shahmohammadi S, Noori A, Karami S, et al. A study on corrosion and scaling potential of drinking water supply resources in rural areas of Sarvabad, West of Iran. J Adv Environ Health Res. 2018;6(1):52-60.
14. Tyagi S, Sarma K. Qualitative assessment, geochemical characterization and corrosion-scaling potential of groundwater resources in Ghaziabad district of Uttar Pradesh, India. Groundw. Sustain. 2020;10:100370.
15. Gholizadeh A, Mokhtari M, Naimi N, et al. Assessment of corrosion and scaling potential in groundwater resources; a case study of Yazd-Ardakan Plain, Iran. Groundw. Sustain. 2017;5:59-65.
16. Davil MF, Mahvi AH, Norouzi M, et al. Survey of corrosion and scaling potential produced water from Ilam water treatment plant. World Appl Sci J. 2009;7(11):11-24.
17. Teimouri F, Sadeghi M, Drees F, et al. Survey of Corrosion or Scaling Potential of Resources, Storage and Distribution of Wate Supply System in Kian by using Langlier and Rizne Indexes. Health Sys Res. 2012;8(1):78-84.
18. Sharafati A, Asadollah SBHS, Neshat A. A new artificial intelligence strategy for predicting the groundwater level over the Rafsanjan aquifer in Iran. J Hydrol. 2020;591:125468.
19. Bagheri A, Babaeian F. Assessing water security of Rafsanjan Plain, Iran–Adopting the SEEA framework of water accounting. Ecol. Indic. 2020;111:105959.
20. Federation WE, Association A. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association (APHA): Washington, DC, USA. 2005;5(2):378-84.
21. Derakhshannia M, Dalvand S, Asakereh B, et al. Corrosion and deposition in Karoon River, Iran, based on hydrometric stations. Int. J. Hydrol. Sci. Technol. 2020;10(4):334-45.
22. Hasani K, Sadeghi H, Dargahi A, et al. Investigation of scaling and corrosion potential of drinking water distribution network using Langelier saturation Index (LSI) and Ryznar Stability Index (RSI) in Meshginshahr city in 2019. J Adv Environ Health Res. 2021;9(3):42-49.
23. Sembiring A, Irawan AP, editors. Analysis of the Potential of Crust Formation and Corrosiveness in the Way Rilau PDAM Lampung Distribution Network Using the Langelier Saturation Index Method. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020;3(7):52-61.
24. Dargahi A, Shokri R, Mohammadi M, et al. Investigating of the corrosion and deposition potentials of drinking water sources using corrosion index: A case study of Dehloran. J. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2016;974:2115.
25. Amouei A, Asgharnia H, Fallah H, et al. Evaluating corrosion and scaling potential of drinking water supplies in Juybar, North of Iran. Iran. J. Health Sci. 2017;5(2):11-8.
26. Abbasnia A, Alimohammadi M, Mahvi AH, et al. Assessment of groundwater quality and evaluation of scaling and corrosiveness potential of drinking water samples in villages of Chabahr city, Sistan and Baluchistan province in Iran. Data in brief. 2018;16:182-92.
27. Shil S, Singh UK, Mehta P. Water quality assessment of a tropical river using water quality index (WQI), multivariate statistical techniques and GIS. Appl. Water Sci. 2019;9(7):1-21.
28. Tavanpour N, Noshadi M, Tavanpour N. Scale formation and corrosion of drinking water pipes: a case study of drinking water distribution system of Shiraz city. Mod. Appl. Sci. 2016;10(3):166-77.
29. Ahmed S, Sultan MW, Alam M, et al. Evaluation of corrosive behaviour and scaling potential of shallow water aquifer using corrosion indices and geospatial approaches in regions of the Yamuna river basin. J. King Saud Univ. Sci. 2021;33(1):101237.
30. Kurdi M, Ferdows MS, Maghsoudi A. Sensitivity of corrosion and scaling indices based on ions; case study Iran. Water Qual Expo Health. 2015;7(3):363-72.
31. Yousefi M, Saleh HN, Mahvi AH, et al. Data on corrosion and scaling potential of drinking water resources using stability indices in Jolfa, East Azerbaijan, Iran. Data in brief. 2018;16:724-31.
32. Acharya S, Sharma S, Khandegar V. Assessment and hydro-geochemical characterization for evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential of groundwater in South West Delhi, India. Data in brief. 2018;18:928.
33. Jalili M, Hosseini MS, Ehrampoush MH, Sarlak M, Abbasi F, Fallahzadeh RA. Use of water quality index and spatial analysis to assess groundwater quality for drinking purpose in Ardakan, Iran. J Environ Health Sustain Dev. 2019;4(3):834-42.
34. Nourmandipour F, Farpoor M, Sarcheshmehpour M. Physicochemical properties and micromorphology of pistachio orchards compared to adjacent non-cultivated soils in Bayaz area. Iran J Soil Water . 2013;3:169-79.
35. Kamali A. Assessment of soil physical quality indicators using remote sensing and in Baft area. J Soil Manag Sus Pro. 2015;5(1):159-72.
36. Hoseinzadeh E, Yusefzadeh A, Rahimi N, et al. Evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential of a water treatment plant. Arch. Hyg. Sci. 2013;2(2):41-7.
37. Rezaei Kalantari R, Yari AR, Ahmadi E, et al. Survey of corrosion and scaling potential in drinking water resources of the villages in Qom province by use of four stability indexes (With Quantitative and qualitative analysis. Arch. Hyg. Sci. 2013;2(4):127-34.
38. Khorsandi H, Mohammadi A, Karimzadeh S, et al. Evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential in rural water distribution network of Urmia, Iran. Desalin Water Treat. 2016;57(23):10585-92.
39. Amouei A, Asgharnia H, Fallah H, et al. Corrosion and Scaling Potential in Drinking Water Distribution of Babol, Northern Iran Based on the Scaling and Corrosion Indices. Arch. Hyg. Sci. 2017;6(1):1-9.
40. Malakootian M, Fatehizadeh A, Meydani E. Investigation of corrosion potential and precipitation tendency of drinking water in the Kerman distribution system. The Journal of Toloo-E-Behdasht. 2013;11(3):1-10.
41. Kinsela AS, Jones AM, Collins RN, et al. The impacts of low-cost treatment options upon scale formation potential in remote communities reliant on hard groundwaters. A case study: Northern Territory, Australia. Sci. Total Environ. 2012;416:22-31.
42. Eslami H, Esmaeili A, Razaeian M, et al. Potentially toxic metal concentration, spatial distribution, and health risk assessment in drinking groundwater resources of southeast Iran. Geosci. Front. 2022;13(1):101276.
43. Eslami H, Tajik R, Esmaeili A, et al. Assessment of the quality of Rafsanjan drinking water resources using Water Quality Index (WQI) model in 2018: A descriptive study. Journal of Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences. 2020;18(10):996-85.
issue 40, 43.
Conclusion
Corrosion and scaling phenomenons are important issues that should be carefully studied in monitoring water distribution systems. Not paying attention to the chemical quality of water in terms of chemical balance (corrosion and scaling) and the emergence of any of the mentioned phenomena can cause many health and economic damage. According to the results, the temperature and pH parameters were in the desired range, and the parameters of CH, TH, and TDS were below the desired level of the Iranian standard. Therefore, precise quality control of parameters effective in scaling is necessary. According to the obtained results from the calculations related to corrosion and scaling indices in the samples taken from the Rafsanjan water distribution and transmission network, LI, RI, AI, and PI confirm the scaling properties of water in this region. One of the reasons for the scaling characteristic of that city can be attributed to the existence of calcareous structures as well as the formation of lime marls, sandstones (clastic sedimentary), and red conglomerates in the soil of the Rafsanjan region. This increases the TH and TDS of the solute and ultimately affects the deposition state of water.
Acknowledgment
This article is the result of a research
project (97344) with an ethics code IR.RUMS.REC.1398.015 approved by Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences. The authors would like to thank all the officials of Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences.
Funding
This study was funded by Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
It is an Open-Access article distributed in accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon this work for commercial use.
References
1. Eslami H, Esmaeili A, Ehrampoush MH, et al. Simultaneous presence of poly titanium chloride and Fe2O3-Mn2O3 nanocomposite in the enhanced coagulation for high rate As (V) removal from contaminated water. J Water Process Eng. 2020;36:101342.
2. Mahmoudabadi TZ, Ehrampoush MH, Talebi P, et al. Comparison of poly ferric chloride and poly titanium tetrachloride in coagulation and flocculation process for paper and cardboard wastewater treatment. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2021;28(21):27262-72.
3. Porsana ZP, Zareib A, Alimohammadia M. Evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential of drinking groundwater in Gonbad-e Kavus. Desalin Water Treat. 2020;195:19-25.
4. Almodaresi SA, Mohammadrezaei M, Dolatabadi M, et al. Qualitative analysis of groundwater quality indicators based on schuler and wilcox diagrams: IDW and kriging models. J Environ Health Sustain Dev. 2019;4(4):903-12.
5. Zhang H, Zhao L, Liu D, et al. Early period corrosion and scaling characteristics of ductile iron pipe for ground water supply with sodium hypochlorite disinfection. Water Res. 2020;176:115742.
6. Eslami H, Mahmoudabadi TZ. Modified coagulation processes using polyferric chloride and polytitanium tetrachloride for the removal of anionic dye from aqueous solution. Int J Environ Sci Technol. 2021:1-8.
7. Nalivan OA, Mollaefar E, Soltani E, et al. Data on assessment of corrosion-scaling potential and chemical parameters of groundwater quality for industrial and agricultural sectors in the Piranshahr Watershed in the West Azerbaijan province, Iran. Data in brief. 2019;27:104627.
8. Taghavi M, Mohammadi MH, Radfard M, et al. Assessment of scaling and corrosion potential of drinking water resources of Iranshahr. MethodsX. 2019;6:278-83.
9. Tang C, Rygaard M, Rosshaug PS, et al. Evaluation and comparison of centralized drinking water softening technologies: Effects on water quality indicators. Water Res. 2021;203:117439.
10. Asghari FB, Jaafari J, Yousefi M, et al. Evaluation of water corrosion, scaling extent and heterotrophic plate count bacteria in asbestos and polyethylene pipes in drinking water distribution system. Hum Ecol Risk Assess. 2018;24(4):1138-49.
11. Mokhtaria Z, Yousefzadehb S, Safaria M, et al. Assessment of the drinking water quality of a rural distribution network in the north of Iran by corrosion and scaling indices. Desalin Water Treat. 2020;206:27-33.
12. Shahbazi H, Mosaferi M, Firuzi P, et al. Spatio-temporal variation of WQI, scaling and corrosion indices, and principal component analysis in rural areas of Marand, Iran. Groundw. Sustain. Dev. 2020;11:100480.
13. Shahmohammadi S, Noori A, Karami S, et al. A study on corrosion and scaling potential of drinking water supply resources in rural areas of Sarvabad, West of Iran. J Adv Environ Health Res. 2018;6(1):52-60.
14. Tyagi S, Sarma K. Qualitative assessment, geochemical characterization and corrosion-scaling potential of groundwater resources in Ghaziabad district of Uttar Pradesh, India. Groundw. Sustain. 2020;10:100370.
15. Gholizadeh A, Mokhtari M, Naimi N, et al. Assessment of corrosion and scaling potential in groundwater resources; a case study of Yazd-Ardakan Plain, Iran. Groundw. Sustain. 2017;5:59-65.
16. Davil MF, Mahvi AH, Norouzi M, et al. Survey of corrosion and scaling potential produced water from Ilam water treatment plant. World Appl Sci J. 2009;7(11):11-24.
17. Teimouri F, Sadeghi M, Drees F, et al. Survey of Corrosion or Scaling Potential of Resources, Storage and Distribution of Wate Supply System in Kian by using Langlier and Rizne Indexes. Health Sys Res. 2012;8(1):78-84.
18. Sharafati A, Asadollah SBHS, Neshat A. A new artificial intelligence strategy for predicting the groundwater level over the Rafsanjan aquifer in Iran. J Hydrol. 2020;591:125468.
19. Bagheri A, Babaeian F. Assessing water security of Rafsanjan Plain, Iran–Adopting the SEEA framework of water accounting. Ecol. Indic. 2020;111:105959.
20. Federation WE, Association A. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association (APHA): Washington, DC, USA. 2005;5(2):378-84.
21. Derakhshannia M, Dalvand S, Asakereh B, et al. Corrosion and deposition in Karoon River, Iran, based on hydrometric stations. Int. J. Hydrol. Sci. Technol. 2020;10(4):334-45.
22. Hasani K, Sadeghi H, Dargahi A, et al. Investigation of scaling and corrosion potential of drinking water distribution network using Langelier saturation Index (LSI) and Ryznar Stability Index (RSI) in Meshginshahr city in 2019. J Adv Environ Health Res. 2021;9(3):42-49.
23. Sembiring A, Irawan AP, editors. Analysis of the Potential of Crust Formation and Corrosiveness in the Way Rilau PDAM Lampung Distribution Network Using the Langelier Saturation Index Method. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020;3(7):52-61.
24. Dargahi A, Shokri R, Mohammadi M, et al. Investigating of the corrosion and deposition potentials of drinking water sources using corrosion index: A case study of Dehloran. J. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2016;974:2115.
25. Amouei A, Asgharnia H, Fallah H, et al. Evaluating corrosion and scaling potential of drinking water supplies in Juybar, North of Iran. Iran. J. Health Sci. 2017;5(2):11-8.
26. Abbasnia A, Alimohammadi M, Mahvi AH, et al. Assessment of groundwater quality and evaluation of scaling and corrosiveness potential of drinking water samples in villages of Chabahr city, Sistan and Baluchistan province in Iran. Data in brief. 2018;16:182-92.
27. Shil S, Singh UK, Mehta P. Water quality assessment of a tropical river using water quality index (WQI), multivariate statistical techniques and GIS. Appl. Water Sci. 2019;9(7):1-21.
28. Tavanpour N, Noshadi M, Tavanpour N. Scale formation and corrosion of drinking water pipes: a case study of drinking water distribution system of Shiraz city. Mod. Appl. Sci. 2016;10(3):166-77.
29. Ahmed S, Sultan MW, Alam M, et al. Evaluation of corrosive behaviour and scaling potential of shallow water aquifer using corrosion indices and geospatial approaches in regions of the Yamuna river basin. J. King Saud Univ. Sci. 2021;33(1):101237.
30. Kurdi M, Ferdows MS, Maghsoudi A. Sensitivity of corrosion and scaling indices based on ions; case study Iran. Water Qual Expo Health. 2015;7(3):363-72.
31. Yousefi M, Saleh HN, Mahvi AH, et al. Data on corrosion and scaling potential of drinking water resources using stability indices in Jolfa, East Azerbaijan, Iran. Data in brief. 2018;16:724-31.
32. Acharya S, Sharma S, Khandegar V. Assessment and hydro-geochemical characterization for evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential of groundwater in South West Delhi, India. Data in brief. 2018;18:928.
33. Jalili M, Hosseini MS, Ehrampoush MH, Sarlak M, Abbasi F, Fallahzadeh RA. Use of water quality index and spatial analysis to assess groundwater quality for drinking purpose in Ardakan, Iran. J Environ Health Sustain Dev. 2019;4(3):834-42.
34. Nourmandipour F, Farpoor M, Sarcheshmehpour M. Physicochemical properties and micromorphology of pistachio orchards compared to adjacent non-cultivated soils in Bayaz area. Iran J Soil Water . 2013;3:169-79.
35. Kamali A. Assessment of soil physical quality indicators using remote sensing and in Baft area. J Soil Manag Sus Pro. 2015;5(1):159-72.
36. Hoseinzadeh E, Yusefzadeh A, Rahimi N, et al. Evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential of a water treatment plant. Arch. Hyg. Sci. 2013;2(2):41-7.
37. Rezaei Kalantari R, Yari AR, Ahmadi E, et al. Survey of corrosion and scaling potential in drinking water resources of the villages in Qom province by use of four stability indexes (With Quantitative and qualitative analysis. Arch. Hyg. Sci. 2013;2(4):127-34.
38. Khorsandi H, Mohammadi A, Karimzadeh S, et al. Evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential in rural water distribution network of Urmia, Iran. Desalin Water Treat. 2016;57(23):10585-92.
39. Amouei A, Asgharnia H, Fallah H, et al. Corrosion and Scaling Potential in Drinking Water Distribution of Babol, Northern Iran Based on the Scaling and Corrosion Indices. Arch. Hyg. Sci. 2017;6(1):1-9.
40. Malakootian M, Fatehizadeh A, Meydani E. Investigation of corrosion potential and precipitation tendency of drinking water in the Kerman distribution system. The Journal of Toloo-E-Behdasht. 2013;11(3):1-10.
41. Kinsela AS, Jones AM, Collins RN, et al. The impacts of low-cost treatment options upon scale formation potential in remote communities reliant on hard groundwaters. A case study: Northern Territory, Australia. Sci. Total Environ. 2012;416:22-31.
42. Eslami H, Esmaeili A, Razaeian M, et al. Potentially toxic metal concentration, spatial distribution, and health risk assessment in drinking groundwater resources of southeast Iran. Geosci. Front. 2022;13(1):101276.
43. Eslami H, Tajik R, Esmaeili A, et al. Assessment of the quality of Rafsanjan drinking water resources using Water Quality Index (WQI) model in 2018: A descriptive study. Journal of Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences. 2020;18(10):996-85.
Type of Study: Original articles |
Subject:
Water quality and wastewater treatment and reuse
Received: 2022/03/28 | Accepted: 2022/05/20 | Published: 2022/06/20
Received: 2022/03/28 | Accepted: 2022/05/20 | Published: 2022/06/20
Send email to the article author
| Rights and permissions | |
 |
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
