Volume 8, Issue 3 (September 2023)
J Environ Health Sustain Dev 2023, 8(3): 2024-2038 |
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Akbari M, Fallahzadeh R A, Dehghani R. A Review of the Impacts of COVID-19 on Air Pollution in the World. J Environ Health Sustain Dev 2023; 8 (3) :2024-2038
URL: http://jehsd.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-620-en.html
URL: http://jehsd.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-620-en.html
Social Determinant of Health (SDH) Research Center and Department of Environment Health and Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran.
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Figure 1: Flowchart of how to select the articles in the study
Table 2: Decrease and increase in air pollutants in Europe during the COVID-19 pandemic
Table 3: Decrease and increase in air pollutants in North and South America and Oceania during the COVID-19 period
Impact of pollutants and meteorological parameters on increasing mortality due to COVID-19 in the world
In nine cities of Saudi Arabia, there was no change in humidity, temperature and wind speed parameters before and after quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic 32. In 219 Chinese cities, the relationship between wind speed and corona virus was negative. In northern China, COVID-19 transmission increased by increasing ambient temperature. However, in southern China, COVID-19 transmission decreased by increasing ambient temperature 56. There was a relationship between moisture and wind speed in Islamabad with COVID-19. In Lahore, there was a positive relationship between temperature and COVID-19 57. In Singapore, short-term exposure to higher concentrations of Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) and NO2 was associated with a higher number of COVID-19 contamination cases, while short-term exposure to higher concentrations of PM10, O3, SO2, CO, rainfall, and humidity was associated with a lower incidence of COVID-19 58. The incidence of COVID-19 is caused by climatic factors such as temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed, according to research conducted in five major Indian cities (Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Calcutta, and Mumbai). The frequency of COVID-19 and fatality during and after lockdown was highly linked to temperature. The concentration of PM2.5, PM10, CO and O3 and air quality index (AQI) were also correlated with positive cases and deaths during lockdown 24. In India, there was a strong association between COVID-19 mortality and PM10 26. Cities with poor air quality have also been associated with higher incidence and mortality of COVID-19 59. In Japan, COVID-19 did not significantly correlate with precipitation, wind speed, humidity, NO, NO2, O3, and PM2.5. However, there is a significant relationship with the average temperature, minimum and maximum daily temperature, and sunny hours 60. During the lockdown period in Moscow, the primary pollutants levels in the environment reduced from 30 to 50% along roads and in residential areas 61. In the city of Lombardy, Italy, the decrease in temperature and increase in humidity have been associated with the increase in the incidence of COVID-19 and the resulting deaths 62. In 36 Italian provinces, there was a strong relationship between PM10 and mortality. Moreover, a high correlation between PM10 and PM2.5 was reported 1. In Vento and Emilia Romania, there was also a positive and nonlinear relationship between the high level of NO2 in the troposphere and the mortality rate of COVID-19 63. In Italy, cities with high wind speeds were found to have a lower number of people with COVID-19. This study showed that high concentrations of air pollutants, along with low wind speed, cause more viral particles in the air and indirect emission of COVID-19 64. In Taragona, there was a positive correlation between COVID-19 deaths and chronic exposure to PM10 and NO2, but O3 had a negative relationship 65. In Germany, temperature is the only climatic index that has significantly affected the COVID-19 epidemic in this country 66. In France, a direct relationship between air pollution and mortality caused by COVID-19 was reported 67. In Uherske Hradiste, a total of 2300 deaths due to reduced exposure to PM2.5 and 1200 deaths due to decreased exposure to NO2 have been estimated 41. In Mexico, a positive relationship between PM2.5 and the probability of death of a person after COVID-19 was found. This relationship increases with age, especially for people aged 40 years 16. A study conducted in 422 cities in the US showed that long-term exposure to air pollution, in addition to the negative impact on the respiratory system and increasing the risk of death, also affects the sensitivity and severity of COVID-19 68. In the US, a decrease in PM2.5 during the corona period has reduced air pollution-related deaths 48. In Chile, the concentration of NO2 and CO showed a strong association with COVID-19, while SO2 had no significant relationship 69. Lima is the largest city with air pollution problems in Latin America. In this city, there was a significant correlation between NO2 and the prevalence of COVID-19. Industrial areas with NO2 above 26 grams per cubic metrology can increase COVID-19 70. Table 4 shows the impact of pollutants on the increase in deaths caused by COVID-19 in the world.
Table 4: Impact of pollutants on the increase in mortality caused by COVID 19 in the world
Discussion
COVID-19 lockdown in Saudi Arabia significantly reduced air pollution through traffic control, industry activities, and environmentally friendly transportation programs. Despite the decrease in concentrations of pollutants during lockdown concentrations, concentrations of CO, PM10, SO2, NO2, and O3 were still higher than the 24-hour standard and the annual WHO limit 32. The major cause for the extraordinary improvement in air quality in Wuhan was climatic elements such as wind direction, wind speed, temperature, and humidity25. In another study, the optimal wind direction was found to reduce PM2.5 in Wuhan. Decreased NO emission also led to an increase in O3 during lockdown 13. In Beijing, high concentration of PM2.5 during the lockdown period was caused by the smoke from industry emissions, non-stop fireworks, and adverse weather conditions 82. In Tianjin, PM2.5, the slight increase of O3, and reducing NO2 indicates that the synergistic control of NOx and VOC should be considered. The humidity of the air in the lockdown period was abnormal and may be due to an increase in nitrate in this period. The reduction of SO2 could be due to the reduction of wind speed and consequently less pollution. The reduction of NO2 and CO might be due to the reduction of pollutant emissions from vehicles 33. In Xian, the decrease in the concentration of suspended particles was due to restriction in human activity 54. During lockdown, high concentrations of PM2.5 in Karachi could be attributed to rapid population growth and business activity, while in Peshawar, the main source of PM2.5 particles was brick kilns operating around the city 24 hours a day 11. In Mumbai and New Delhi, O3 was increasing due to reduced nitrogen oxide. Before the lockdown period, the AQI was at unhealthy and very unhealthy levels, but after the lockdown, it has been at a healthy level. Therefore, the lockdown had no long-term impact on air quality in Delhi and Mumbai 29. In India, except for coal mine areas, air quality improved during lockdown 59. In South Korea, air pollution reduction was probably due to the reduction of domestic sources and transnational pollutants after the start of the COVID-19 28. Contrary to most studies in Taiwan, increasing pollutants on working days was observed by the emergence of COVID-19. It was due to the fact that during the COVID-19 epidemic, using metro and bicycles decreased by 8 to 18%, while the use of cars and motorcycles increased by 11 to 21% in working days 34. In Iran, a significant increase in the concentration of O3 could be due to the reduction of PM, NO2, and VOC. However, following the lockdown, it was discovered that the concentration of all pollutants, especially O3, increased to some extent compared to the 5-year normal limit. The abolition of the traffic management plan and the increased usage of personal automobiles to preserve social distance were the key reasons for this increase. Starting different jobs ahead of time due to economic problems was effective 15. Compared to 2019, the mean concentrations of O3, NO2, SO2, CO, PM10, and PM2.5 increased during the COVID-19 in Tehran. It is due to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from traffic as a result of lockdown. The concentration of other pollutants has changed slightly, indicating that lockdown does not lead to severe changes in greenhouse gas emissions from resources 30. In Iran, the mean concentration of contaminants in the second wave of the disease indicates that air pollution increased by resolving transport restrictions 23. In the lockdown period, a significant reduction in NO2 concentration was observed due to the reduction of motor vehicles and road traffic in many major cities in Poland. Furthermore, except for SO2, the concentration of PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 decreased, since some factories were working during the lockdown period. The main reason for decreasing PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 was a significant reduction in international and local transportation, reducing crude oil consumption and coal, which has had a great impact on air quality 37. The implementation of the lockdown led to an increase in the highest O3 concentrations at both the urban and regional background sites resulting from reduced titration of O3 by NO 44. In 10 Spanish metropolis, PM2.5 decreased due to increased traffic, increasing the fuel caused by burning biomass and household fuels, and weather conditions40. There was no significant decrease in air pollution in Greece. This might be related to the ruling conditions during the period of clustering of the corona virus, including meteorological conditions 83. In another study in Greece, a reduction in NO2 was further attributed to a reduction in vehicle emissions 42. NOx reduced in the Ostrava region due to traffic loss during lockdown. PM2.5 contamination analysis showed that home heating is the main source of PM2.5 in the region. The highest decrease in PM2.5 concentration at Ostrava Českobratrská traffic station was due to vehicle traffic reduction 84. In Hungary, 20 to 50% reduction of road traffic decreased NOx and increased O3 and PM10 during lockdown 85. New York has experienced a sharp decline in air pollution in during the COVID-19, but this decline was high in exchange for social and economic costs 86. Unstable economic growth has increased the emission of pollutants (PM2.5 and NO2) in New York 87. Increasing PM10 in California can be related to the growing increase in the fires around California 45. In Phoenix, the lack of CO and NO2 concentrations and the dramatic decrease in PM10 indicate that reduced travel did not reduce emissions, since people were still traveling home on local roads 88. In Chile, an increase in the concentration of O3 can be explained by considering complex atmospheric photochemical reactions including a mixture of VOC and NOx. The reduction of NOx increases the OH radicals that react with VOC and produces more O3. NOx showed the highest decrease among all the studied pollutants that could be related to traffic loss 47. Also, PM2.5 in the open space caused by wood heating increased in prosperous areas89. In Mexico, a low-traffic monitoring station has had the highest reduction in pollutants 17. COVID-19 lockdown reduced the level of traffic-related pollutants (NO2, PM2.5, and CO) and improved air quality in Morocco. This unique scenario might be due to the reduction of transnational pollution as a result of neighboring nations' lockdown measures 53. Given that more than 900 million people in Africa rely on air-polluting energy sources such as domestic appliances, white oil, and coal, CO levels have been minimally reduced. Millions in Africa live in small houses with inappropriate building materials, which can increase air pollution 90. NO2 reduction in New Zealand can be related to removing greenhouse gas emissions 51.
Conclusion
Based on global studies, ambient air quality was significantly affected by the prevalence of COVID-19. In the lockdown period, the reduction of most air pollutants except O3 was observed in many countries. But, after restarting work activities the pollutants concentrations increased again.
Therefore, policies used during lockdown period including traffic control, reduced industrial activity, transport constraints, reduction of polluted emissions, and restrictions in human activities can lead to improvement of air quality. Laws enforced during lockdown can be introduced as an appropriate option in resource planning and intervention policies to reduce air pollution. There is also a significant relationship between PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 and the risk of COVID-19 incidence and death, indicating that air pollution exacerbates the disease's prevalence and fatality. As a result, decreasing air pollution is of importance in reducing the pandemic. The findings of this study may be relevant to public health policymakers and decision-makers seeking to reduce COVID-19 prevalence.
Acknowledgements
The present study has been approved by
Kashan University of Medical Sciences with the ethics code IR.KAUMS.NUHEPM.REC.1400.043. Thanks are owed to the relevant authorities.
Funding
This study was supported by Kashan University of Medical Sciences.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
This is an Open-Access article distributed in accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon this work for commercial use.
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A Review of the Impacts of COVID-19 on Air Pollution in the World
Marzieh Akbari 1, Reza Ali Fallahzadeh 2, Rouhullah Dehghani 1*
1 Social Determinant of Health (SDH) Research Center and Department of Environment Health and Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran.
2 Genetic and Environmental Adventures Research Center, School of Abarkouh Paramedicine, Shahid Sadoughi
University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran.
Marzieh Akbari 1, Reza Ali Fallahzadeh 2, Rouhullah Dehghani 1*
1 Social Determinant of Health (SDH) Research Center and Department of Environment Health and Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran.
2 Genetic and Environmental Adventures Research Center, School of Abarkouh Paramedicine, Shahid Sadoughi
University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran.
| A R T I C L E I N F O | ABSTRACT | |
| REVIEW ARTICLE | Introduction: The COVID-19 epidemic has polluted millions of people and has caused millions of deaths worldwide. Therefore, this study aims to review the effects of COVID-19 on global air pollution. Materials and Methods: In this narrative review, articles related to the objectives of the study were selected in reliable scientific databases such as Web of Science, Ovid, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus. A total of 294 browsing sources and ultimately 90 sources were selected. Results: In the COVID-19 pandemic, NO2 dropped from 53 to 11% in most countries, and PM2.5 and PM10 from 91 to 6% in some countries. CO dropped from 92 to 5% and SO2 had a decreasing trend from 77 to 7% in most countries, except for the largest cities in Britain, Poland, Taiwan, and Iran. Unlike other pollutants, O3 in most countries increased from 0.3 to 63%, but O3 decreased in some countries. Conclusion: In the lockdown period, the reduction of most air pollutants except O3 was observed in many countries. But after restarting, polluting activities have incresed again. Therefore, the rules implemented during lockdown time can be introduced as an appropriate option in emergencies to reduce air pollution. |
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Article History: Received: 05 May 2023 Accepted: 10 July 2023 |
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*Corresponding Author: Rouhullah Dehghani Email: dehghani37@yahoo.com Tel: +98 913 3610919 |
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Keywords: Air pollution, COVID-19, Pneumonia, Epidemic. |
Citation: Akbari M, Fallahzadeh RA, Dehghani R. A Review of the Impacts of COVID-19 on Air Pollution in the World. J Environ Health Sustain Dev. 2023; 8(3): 2024-38.
Introduction
Air pollution is one of the main public health problems. According to World Health Organization (WHO), air pollution is responsible for 7 million deaths worldwide 1. Nowadays, the lives of more than one billion people in the world are threatened due to urban air pollution 2. In 2016, 91% of the world's population was exposed to air pollutants, which was more than the WHO standard. Studies have shown that air pollutants such as particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 micrometers (PM10) and particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOX), Ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) are associated with adverse health implications. Respiratory disorders, cardiovascular disease, and early death are among the consequences 3. SARS-CoV-2 is a zoonotic virus that causes COVID-19 infectious pneumonia 4. COVID-19 was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan China 5, 6, and on March 11, 2020, it was announced by the World Pandemic Health Organization 7-10. This virus has caused millions of deaths worldwide. It is the fifth epidemic that has occurred in the world in the last few years 11, 12. The COVID-19 epidemic has significantly challenged people’s daily lives 13. In Iran, the first official report of death from COVID-19 was reported by the Ministry of Health and Medical Education February 2019 14. The first cases of COVID-19 were accompanied by severe air pollution 15. Air pollutants can increase the risk of viruses that damage the respiratory tract. Hence, it is said that long-term exposure to air pollution puts people exposed to COVID-19. Although the role of air pollution in the transmission of virus through the air is still uncertain, the initial evidence confirms that the SARS-CoV-2 virus may exist in particulate matter. In this case, exposure to air pollution can help spread the virus 16. Previous studies have suggested that exposure to high concentrations of contaminants such as PM2.5, PM10, CO, NO2, and O3 can increase the risk of damage to the health of people infected with COVID-19 17. Feng et al. and Llaguno-Munitxa et al. reported reductions in air pollution in China and London during the COVID-19 lockdown, respectively 18, 19. Dubey et al. also reported that in India even a short period of closure can lead to a significant improvement in air quality 20. In 2003, it was reported that patients with SARS-CoV-1, who lived at the average level of air pollution, lost lives 84% more than those living in areas with less air pollution 21. COVID-19 has had an impact on human society, particularly health-care economic systems and social connections. As a worldwide strategy involving employment closure and social distancing, lockdown has had extraordinary regional implications. Although the severe health impacts of the COVID-19 are still in the main priority, it is not yet clear how the epidemic can affect other factors, especially air pollution 22. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate air pollution and its impacts simultaneously on the prevalence of COVID-19 in the world.
Materials and Methods
This study was conducted as a narrative review using the keywords of air pollution, COVID-19, Iran, and the world in websites related to reliable journals in scientific databases such as Web of Science, Ovid, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus and SID. The articles were initially chosen based on their titles, which were linked to the research goals, and then their abstracts and related articles were separated. After a careful evaluation of the articles, studies that were relevant to the study's goals were chosen. Articles between 2014 to 2023 were evaluated to investigate air pollution and its effects simultaneously with the prevalence of COVID-19 in the world. Ultimately, 90 sources were selected by emphasizing the objectives of the study. Figure 1 shows the flowchart of how to select the articles investigated in the study.
Air pollution is one of the main public health problems. According to World Health Organization (WHO), air pollution is responsible for 7 million deaths worldwide 1. Nowadays, the lives of more than one billion people in the world are threatened due to urban air pollution 2. In 2016, 91% of the world's population was exposed to air pollutants, which was more than the WHO standard. Studies have shown that air pollutants such as particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 micrometers (PM10) and particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOX), Ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) are associated with adverse health implications. Respiratory disorders, cardiovascular disease, and early death are among the consequences 3. SARS-CoV-2 is a zoonotic virus that causes COVID-19 infectious pneumonia 4. COVID-19 was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan China 5, 6, and on March 11, 2020, it was announced by the World Pandemic Health Organization 7-10. This virus has caused millions of deaths worldwide. It is the fifth epidemic that has occurred in the world in the last few years 11, 12. The COVID-19 epidemic has significantly challenged people’s daily lives 13. In Iran, the first official report of death from COVID-19 was reported by the Ministry of Health and Medical Education February 2019 14. The first cases of COVID-19 were accompanied by severe air pollution 15. Air pollutants can increase the risk of viruses that damage the respiratory tract. Hence, it is said that long-term exposure to air pollution puts people exposed to COVID-19. Although the role of air pollution in the transmission of virus through the air is still uncertain, the initial evidence confirms that the SARS-CoV-2 virus may exist in particulate matter. In this case, exposure to air pollution can help spread the virus 16. Previous studies have suggested that exposure to high concentrations of contaminants such as PM2.5, PM10, CO, NO2, and O3 can increase the risk of damage to the health of people infected with COVID-19 17. Feng et al. and Llaguno-Munitxa et al. reported reductions in air pollution in China and London during the COVID-19 lockdown, respectively 18, 19. Dubey et al. also reported that in India even a short period of closure can lead to a significant improvement in air quality 20. In 2003, it was reported that patients with SARS-CoV-1, who lived at the average level of air pollution, lost lives 84% more than those living in areas with less air pollution 21. COVID-19 has had an impact on human society, particularly health-care economic systems and social connections. As a worldwide strategy involving employment closure and social distancing, lockdown has had extraordinary regional implications. Although the severe health impacts of the COVID-19 are still in the main priority, it is not yet clear how the epidemic can affect other factors, especially air pollution 22. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate air pollution and its impacts simultaneously on the prevalence of COVID-19 in the world.
Materials and Methods
This study was conducted as a narrative review using the keywords of air pollution, COVID-19, Iran, and the world in websites related to reliable journals in scientific databases such as Web of Science, Ovid, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus and SID. The articles were initially chosen based on their titles, which were linked to the research goals, and then their abstracts and related articles were separated. After a careful evaluation of the articles, studies that were relevant to the study's goals were chosen. Articles between 2014 to 2023 were evaluated to investigate air pollution and its effects simultaneously with the prevalence of COVID-19 in the world. Ultimately, 90 sources were selected by emphasizing the objectives of the study. Figure 1 shows the flowchart of how to select the articles investigated in the study.
Figure 1: Flowchart of how to select the articles in the study
Ethical Issue
The present study has been approved by Kashan University of Medical Sciences with the ethics code IR.KAUMS.NUHEPM.REC.1400.043.
Results
Increase and decrease of air pollutants in the world during the COVID-19 pandemic
In Asia, Calcutta had the highest decrease, and Iran had the lowest decrease in PM2.5 23, 24. In Mumbai and Delhi, India, South Korea, Wuhan, and Dhaka, decreasing in PM2.5 was reported 25-29. However, PM2.5 increased in Tehran, Lahore, Karachi, and Peshawar 11, 30. SO2 had the highest decrease in Istanbul and the lowest in Wuhan 25, 31. In Jeddah, Mumbai and Delhi, Tianjin and Dhaka SO2 dropped 27, 29, 32, 33, but in Taiwan and Iran, this pollutant increased 23, 34. In Mecca, Istanbul, and Dhaka O3 decreased 27, 31, 32. The highest increase was reported in O3 in Iran and the lowest in Tianjin 23, 33. In Cairo and Alexandria, Wuhan, Mumbai and Delhi, Tel Aviv and Haifa, O3 increased 25, 29, 35, 36. CO had the highest decrease in Istanbul and the lowest decrease in Cairo and Alexandria 31, 36. This pollutant also dropped in Mumbai and Delhi, Bangalore, Wuhan, Tianjin, South Korea, Tehran, Dhaka, and Iran 23, 28, 30, 33. Only in Taiwan was an increase of CO reported 34. In Mumbai and Delhi, NO2 has fallen highest in South Korea 28, 29. In Riyadh, Wuhan, Alexandria, India, Cairo, Istanbul, Tianjin, Dhaka, Tehran, Iran and Israel, NO2 also decreased 23, 25-27, 33, 35, 36. PM10 had the highest decrease in Riyadh and the lowest decrease in Iran 23, 32. PM10 fell in Mumbai and New Delhi, India, South Korea, Istanbul, Wuhan and Tianjin 25, 26, 29, 31, 33. In Europe, PM2.5 decreased in Poland and the largest cities in the UK, but in Warsaw it was reported to increase 37-39. O3 increased in the largest cities of Britain 39. In metropolitan areas in Spain, the highest decrease was observed in NO2 and the lowest decrease in the Czech Republic and Greece 40-42. In Italy, Poland, Portugal, the largest cities of Britain and Warsaw the NO2 decreased 37-39, 43, 44. PM10 had the highest decrease in metropolitan areas of Spain and the lowest in France 40. It reduced in Warsaw, Portugal, and the Czech Republic 37, 41, 43. PM2.5 decreased in North and South America, California, Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Chile and seven states and capitals in the United States. CO decreased in Canada, California and Chile. O3 increased in California and Chile. NO2 decreased in California and Toronto, Argentina, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary and Canada. PM10 increased in California. The highest decrease in PM2.5, CO, and PM10 was in Mexico 17, 45-50. In New Zealand, the highest reduction was in NO2 51. Tables 1, 2, and 3 show the decrease and increase of air pollutants in the world during the COVID-19 period. In Nigeria, the Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), which is one of the important parameters in dust study, decreased significantly compared to the pre-lockdown period. During lockdown, the average level of air pollution decreased by about 69% compared to pre-lockdown. The increase in air quality is attributed to seasonal changes in climatic circumstances rather than lockdown efforts, since the average level of pollution during lockdown in Nigeria in 2020 was 0.22 greater than in the same time in 2013 or 2014 52. NO2 in Casablanca was 12 μg/m3 and in Morocco was 7 μg/m3. PM2.5 in Casablanca was 18 μg/m3 and in Morocco was 14 μg/m3. CO in Casablanca was 0.04 mg/m3 and in Morocco 0.12 mg/m3 53.
The present study has been approved by Kashan University of Medical Sciences with the ethics code IR.KAUMS.NUHEPM.REC.1400.043.
Results
Increase and decrease of air pollutants in the world during the COVID-19 pandemic
In Asia, Calcutta had the highest decrease, and Iran had the lowest decrease in PM2.5 23, 24. In Mumbai and Delhi, India, South Korea, Wuhan, and Dhaka, decreasing in PM2.5 was reported 25-29. However, PM2.5 increased in Tehran, Lahore, Karachi, and Peshawar 11, 30. SO2 had the highest decrease in Istanbul and the lowest in Wuhan 25, 31. In Jeddah, Mumbai and Delhi, Tianjin and Dhaka SO2 dropped 27, 29, 32, 33, but in Taiwan and Iran, this pollutant increased 23, 34. In Mecca, Istanbul, and Dhaka O3 decreased 27, 31, 32. The highest increase was reported in O3 in Iran and the lowest in Tianjin 23, 33. In Cairo and Alexandria, Wuhan, Mumbai and Delhi, Tel Aviv and Haifa, O3 increased 25, 29, 35, 36. CO had the highest decrease in Istanbul and the lowest decrease in Cairo and Alexandria 31, 36. This pollutant also dropped in Mumbai and Delhi, Bangalore, Wuhan, Tianjin, South Korea, Tehran, Dhaka, and Iran 23, 28, 30, 33. Only in Taiwan was an increase of CO reported 34. In Mumbai and Delhi, NO2 has fallen highest in South Korea 28, 29. In Riyadh, Wuhan, Alexandria, India, Cairo, Istanbul, Tianjin, Dhaka, Tehran, Iran and Israel, NO2 also decreased 23, 25-27, 33, 35, 36. PM10 had the highest decrease in Riyadh and the lowest decrease in Iran 23, 32. PM10 fell in Mumbai and New Delhi, India, South Korea, Istanbul, Wuhan and Tianjin 25, 26, 29, 31, 33. In Europe, PM2.5 decreased in Poland and the largest cities in the UK, but in Warsaw it was reported to increase 37-39. O3 increased in the largest cities of Britain 39. In metropolitan areas in Spain, the highest decrease was observed in NO2 and the lowest decrease in the Czech Republic and Greece 40-42. In Italy, Poland, Portugal, the largest cities of Britain and Warsaw the NO2 decreased 37-39, 43, 44. PM10 had the highest decrease in metropolitan areas of Spain and the lowest in France 40. It reduced in Warsaw, Portugal, and the Czech Republic 37, 41, 43. PM2.5 decreased in North and South America, California, Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Chile and seven states and capitals in the United States. CO decreased in Canada, California and Chile. O3 increased in California and Chile. NO2 decreased in California and Toronto, Argentina, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary and Canada. PM10 increased in California. The highest decrease in PM2.5, CO, and PM10 was in Mexico 17, 45-50. In New Zealand, the highest reduction was in NO2 51. Tables 1, 2, and 3 show the decrease and increase of air pollutants in the world during the COVID-19 period. In Nigeria, the Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), which is one of the important parameters in dust study, decreased significantly compared to the pre-lockdown period. During lockdown, the average level of air pollution decreased by about 69% compared to pre-lockdown. The increase in air quality is attributed to seasonal changes in climatic circumstances rather than lockdown efforts, since the average level of pollution during lockdown in Nigeria in 2020 was 0.22 greater than in the same time in 2013 or 2014 52. NO2 in Casablanca was 12 μg/m3 and in Morocco was 7 μg/m3. PM2.5 in Casablanca was 18 μg/m3 and in Morocco was 14 μg/m3. CO in Casablanca was 0.04 mg/m3 and in Morocco 0.12 mg/m3 53.
Table 1: Decrease and increase in air pollutants in Asia during the COVID-19 period (%)
| References | Decreased | Increased | Pollutants | City or country |
| 28 | 45.45 | PM2.5 | South Korea | |
| 29 | 42 | Mumbai and New Delhi India | ||
| 24 | 85 | Kolkata | ||
| 26 | 34.84 | India | ||
| 25 | 32.92 | Wuhan | ||
| 27 | 26 | Dhaka | ||
| 23 | 6 | Iran | ||
| 30 | 4 | Tehran | ||
| 54 | 32-51 | PM | Xian | |
| 31 | 77 | SO2 | Istanbul | |
| 32 | 44.16 | Jeda | ||
| 29 | 41 | Bombay and Delhi | ||
| 33 | 32.7 | Tianjin | ||
| 27 | 17.5 | Dhaka | ||
| 25 | 6.95 | Wuhan | ||
| 34 | 8.7 | Taiwan | ||
| 23 | 15 | Iran | ||
| 36 | 2 | O3 | Cairo and Alexandria | |
| 32 | 18.98 | Mecca | ||
| 25 | 2.26 | Wuhan | ||
| 33 | 0.3 | Tianjin | ||
| 29 | 2 | Bombay and Delhi | ||
| 31 | 56 | Istanbul | ||
| 27 | 9.7 | Dhaka | ||
| 35 | 11 | Tel-Aviv | ||
| 1 | Haifa | |||
| 23 | 12 | Iran | ||
| 31 | 92 | CO | Istanbul | |
| 29 | 37 | Bombay and Delhi | ||
| 24 | 58 | Bangalore | ||
| 25 | 18.24 | Wuhan | ||
| 33 | 17.8 | Tianjin | ||
| 28 | 17.33 | South Korea | ||
| 27 | 8.8 | Dhaka | ||
| 36 | 5 | Cairo and Alexandria | ||
| 34 | 6.8 | Taiwan | ||
| 23 | 11 | Iran | ||
| 30 | 6 | Tehran | ||
| 29 | 53 | NO2 | Bombay and Delhi | |
| 32 | 44.35 | Riyadh | ||
| 25 | 38.33 | Wuhan | ||
| 36 | 33 | Alexandria | ||
| 15 | Cairo | |||
| 31 | 24 | Istanbul | ||
| 33 | 22.7 | Tianjin | ||
| 27 | 20.4 | Dhaka | ||
| 28 | 4.16 | South Korea | ||
| 26 | 48.68 | India | ||
| 23 | 15 | Iran | ||
| 30 | 12 | Tehran | ||
| 35 | 41 | Israel | ||
| 32 | 91.12 | PM10 | Riyadh | |
| 29 | 50 | Bombay and Delhi | ||
| 28 | 35.56 | South Korea | ||
| 31 | 32 | Istanbul | ||
| 26 | 33.89 | India | ||
| 25 | 30.25 | Wuhan | ||
| 33 | 18.3 | Tianjin | ||
| 23 | 10 | Iran |
Table 2: Decrease and increase in air pollutants in Europe during the COVID-19 pandemic
| References | Decreased | Increased | Pollutants | City or country |
| 39 | 26 | PM2.5 | London | |
| 25 | Glasgow | |||
| 30 | Belfast | |||
| 28 | Birmingham | |||
| 28 | Manchester | |||
| 29 | Newcastle | |||
| 28 | Liverpool | |||
| 37 | 12.4 | Warsaw | ||
| 38 | 20 | Poland urban site |
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| 23 | Poland a background site |
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| 39 | 16 | O3 | London | |
| 5 | Glasgow | |||
| 8 | Belfast | |||
| 16 | Birmingham | |||
| 12 | Manchester | |||
| 7 | Newcastle | |||
| 12 | Liverpool | |||
| 40 | 24 | SO2 | Metropolises in Spain | |
| 39 | 116 | London | ||
| 117 | Glasgow | |||
| 168 | Belfast | |||
| 130 | Birmingham | |||
| 116 | Manchester | |||
| 135 | Newcastle | |||
| 142 | Liverpool | |||
| 37 | 190.8 | Warsaw | ||
| 40 | 51 | NO2 | metropolises in Spain | |
| 44 | 30 | Italy (urban background sites) | ||
| 40 | Italy (regional background sites) | |||
| 38 | 20 | Poland (urban site) | ||
| 18 | Poland (background site) | |||
| 43 | 41 | Portugal | ||
| 42 | 11 | AOD | Greece | |
| 39 |
36 | London | ||
| 44 | Glasgow | |||
| 41 | Belfast | |||
| 39 | Birmingham | |||
| 37 | Manchester | |||
| 39 | Newcastle | |||
| 38 | Liverpool | |||
| 41 | 11 | Uherske Hradiste | ||
| 37 | 19.6 | Warsaw | ||
| 40 | 27 | PM10 | metropolises in Spain | |
| 43 | 18 | Portugal | ||
| 37 | 9.9 | Warsaw | ||
| 41 | 9.23 | Uherske Hradiste | ||
| 55 | 8.3 | France | ||
| 38 | 15 | Poland |
Table 3: Decrease and increase in air pollutants in North and South America and Oceania during the COVID-19 period
| References | Decreased | Increased | Pollutants | City or country |
| 45 | 31 | PM2.5 | California | |
| 46 | 17-6 | Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver and Calgary | ||
| 48 | 12.8 | 7 states and capital of America | ||
| 17 | 44.52 | Mexico | ||
| 47 | 11 | Chile | ||
| 45 | 49 | CO | California | |
| 50 | 20 | Canada | ||
| 17 | 46.20 | Mexico | ||
| 47 | 13 | Chile | ||
| 45 | 14 | O3 | California | |
| 47 | 63 | Chile | ||
| 50 | 20 | NO2 | Canada | |
| 45 | 38 | California | ||
| 49 | 30 | Argentina | ||
| 46 | 31-34 | Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver and Calgary | ||
| 45 | 21 | PM10 | California | |
| 17 | 44.56 | Mexico | ||
| 49 | 44 | Argentina | ||
| 49 | 38-66 | AOD | Argentina | |
| 51 | 48-54.5 | NO2 | New Zealand |
Impact of pollutants and meteorological parameters on increasing mortality due to COVID-19 in the world
In nine cities of Saudi Arabia, there was no change in humidity, temperature and wind speed parameters before and after quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic 32. In 219 Chinese cities, the relationship between wind speed and corona virus was negative. In northern China, COVID-19 transmission increased by increasing ambient temperature. However, in southern China, COVID-19 transmission decreased by increasing ambient temperature 56. There was a relationship between moisture and wind speed in Islamabad with COVID-19. In Lahore, there was a positive relationship between temperature and COVID-19 57. In Singapore, short-term exposure to higher concentrations of Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) and NO2 was associated with a higher number of COVID-19 contamination cases, while short-term exposure to higher concentrations of PM10, O3, SO2, CO, rainfall, and humidity was associated with a lower incidence of COVID-19 58. The incidence of COVID-19 is caused by climatic factors such as temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed, according to research conducted in five major Indian cities (Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Calcutta, and Mumbai). The frequency of COVID-19 and fatality during and after lockdown was highly linked to temperature. The concentration of PM2.5, PM10, CO and O3 and air quality index (AQI) were also correlated with positive cases and deaths during lockdown 24. In India, there was a strong association between COVID-19 mortality and PM10 26. Cities with poor air quality have also been associated with higher incidence and mortality of COVID-19 59. In Japan, COVID-19 did not significantly correlate with precipitation, wind speed, humidity, NO, NO2, O3, and PM2.5. However, there is a significant relationship with the average temperature, minimum and maximum daily temperature, and sunny hours 60. During the lockdown period in Moscow, the primary pollutants levels in the environment reduced from 30 to 50% along roads and in residential areas 61. In the city of Lombardy, Italy, the decrease in temperature and increase in humidity have been associated with the increase in the incidence of COVID-19 and the resulting deaths 62. In 36 Italian provinces, there was a strong relationship between PM10 and mortality. Moreover, a high correlation between PM10 and PM2.5 was reported 1. In Vento and Emilia Romania, there was also a positive and nonlinear relationship between the high level of NO2 in the troposphere and the mortality rate of COVID-19 63. In Italy, cities with high wind speeds were found to have a lower number of people with COVID-19. This study showed that high concentrations of air pollutants, along with low wind speed, cause more viral particles in the air and indirect emission of COVID-19 64. In Taragona, there was a positive correlation between COVID-19 deaths and chronic exposure to PM10 and NO2, but O3 had a negative relationship 65. In Germany, temperature is the only climatic index that has significantly affected the COVID-19 epidemic in this country 66. In France, a direct relationship between air pollution and mortality caused by COVID-19 was reported 67. In Uherske Hradiste, a total of 2300 deaths due to reduced exposure to PM2.5 and 1200 deaths due to decreased exposure to NO2 have been estimated 41. In Mexico, a positive relationship between PM2.5 and the probability of death of a person after COVID-19 was found. This relationship increases with age, especially for people aged 40 years 16. A study conducted in 422 cities in the US showed that long-term exposure to air pollution, in addition to the negative impact on the respiratory system and increasing the risk of death, also affects the sensitivity and severity of COVID-19 68. In the US, a decrease in PM2.5 during the corona period has reduced air pollution-related deaths 48. In Chile, the concentration of NO2 and CO showed a strong association with COVID-19, while SO2 had no significant relationship 69. Lima is the largest city with air pollution problems in Latin America. In this city, there was a significant correlation between NO2 and the prevalence of COVID-19. Industrial areas with NO2 above 26 grams per cubic metrology can increase COVID-19 70. Table 4 shows the impact of pollutants on the increase in deaths caused by COVID-19 in the world.
Table 4: Impact of pollutants on the increase in mortality caused by COVID 19 in the world
| References | Increased mortality |
Decreased morbidity |
Increased morbidity |
The rate of increase of pollutants |
City or country |
Continent |
| 71 | 37.8% | 10 μg/m3 NO2 | China | Asia | ||
| 32.3% | 10 μg/m3 PM2.5 | |||||
| 14.2% | 10 μg/m3 PM10 | |||||
| 72 | 2.7% | 1 μg/m3 NO2 | Iran | |||
| 56 | 5-7% | Per 10 unit AQI | China | |||
| 27 | 2.9% | 1 μg/m3 O3 | Dhaka | |||
| 53.9% | 1 μg/m3 CO | |||||
| 62 | 58% | 10 μg/m3 PM2.5 | Italy | Europe | ||
| 34% | 10 μg/m3PM10 | |||||
| 23% | 10 μg/m3PM2.5 | |||||
| 73 | 9% | 1 μg/m3PM | Northern Italy | |||
| 74 | 2.7% | 1 μg/m3NO2 | Catalonia Spain | |||
| 3% | 1μg/m3PM10 | |||||
| 75 | 1.4% | 1 μg/m3PM2.5 | England | |||
| 0.5% | 1 μg/m3NO2 | |||||
| 55 | 2.3% | 9.4% | 1 μg/m3PM2.5 | Netherlands | ||
| 76 | 12% | 1μg/m3PM2.5 | England | |||
| 77 | 5.58% | 1 μg/m3NO2 | Germany | |||
| 78 |
199.46 morbidity per 100,000 inhabitants |
1 μg/m3PM2.5 | Germany | |||
| 52.38 morbidity per 100,000 inhabitants | 1μg/m3PM10 | |||||
| 79 | 8% | 1 μg/m3 PM2.5 | America | North and South America | ||
| 80 | 34% | 26% | 1 μg/m3 PM2.5 | America | ||
| 81 | 31% | 8.7 ppb (IQR) in mean annual NO2 | Los Angeles |
Discussion
COVID-19 lockdown in Saudi Arabia significantly reduced air pollution through traffic control, industry activities, and environmentally friendly transportation programs. Despite the decrease in concentrations of pollutants during lockdown concentrations, concentrations of CO, PM10, SO2, NO2, and O3 were still higher than the 24-hour standard and the annual WHO limit 32. The major cause for the extraordinary improvement in air quality in Wuhan was climatic elements such as wind direction, wind speed, temperature, and humidity25. In another study, the optimal wind direction was found to reduce PM2.5 in Wuhan. Decreased NO emission also led to an increase in O3 during lockdown 13. In Beijing, high concentration of PM2.5 during the lockdown period was caused by the smoke from industry emissions, non-stop fireworks, and adverse weather conditions 82. In Tianjin, PM2.5, the slight increase of O3, and reducing NO2 indicates that the synergistic control of NOx and VOC should be considered. The humidity of the air in the lockdown period was abnormal and may be due to an increase in nitrate in this period. The reduction of SO2 could be due to the reduction of wind speed and consequently less pollution. The reduction of NO2 and CO might be due to the reduction of pollutant emissions from vehicles 33. In Xian, the decrease in the concentration of suspended particles was due to restriction in human activity 54. During lockdown, high concentrations of PM2.5 in Karachi could be attributed to rapid population growth and business activity, while in Peshawar, the main source of PM2.5 particles was brick kilns operating around the city 24 hours a day 11. In Mumbai and New Delhi, O3 was increasing due to reduced nitrogen oxide. Before the lockdown period, the AQI was at unhealthy and very unhealthy levels, but after the lockdown, it has been at a healthy level. Therefore, the lockdown had no long-term impact on air quality in Delhi and Mumbai 29. In India, except for coal mine areas, air quality improved during lockdown 59. In South Korea, air pollution reduction was probably due to the reduction of domestic sources and transnational pollutants after the start of the COVID-19 28. Contrary to most studies in Taiwan, increasing pollutants on working days was observed by the emergence of COVID-19. It was due to the fact that during the COVID-19 epidemic, using metro and bicycles decreased by 8 to 18%, while the use of cars and motorcycles increased by 11 to 21% in working days 34. In Iran, a significant increase in the concentration of O3 could be due to the reduction of PM, NO2, and VOC. However, following the lockdown, it was discovered that the concentration of all pollutants, especially O3, increased to some extent compared to the 5-year normal limit. The abolition of the traffic management plan and the increased usage of personal automobiles to preserve social distance were the key reasons for this increase. Starting different jobs ahead of time due to economic problems was effective 15. Compared to 2019, the mean concentrations of O3, NO2, SO2, CO, PM10, and PM2.5 increased during the COVID-19 in Tehran. It is due to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from traffic as a result of lockdown. The concentration of other pollutants has changed slightly, indicating that lockdown does not lead to severe changes in greenhouse gas emissions from resources 30. In Iran, the mean concentration of contaminants in the second wave of the disease indicates that air pollution increased by resolving transport restrictions 23. In the lockdown period, a significant reduction in NO2 concentration was observed due to the reduction of motor vehicles and road traffic in many major cities in Poland. Furthermore, except for SO2, the concentration of PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 decreased, since some factories were working during the lockdown period. The main reason for decreasing PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 was a significant reduction in international and local transportation, reducing crude oil consumption and coal, which has had a great impact on air quality 37. The implementation of the lockdown led to an increase in the highest O3 concentrations at both the urban and regional background sites resulting from reduced titration of O3 by NO 44. In 10 Spanish metropolis, PM2.5 decreased due to increased traffic, increasing the fuel caused by burning biomass and household fuels, and weather conditions40. There was no significant decrease in air pollution in Greece. This might be related to the ruling conditions during the period of clustering of the corona virus, including meteorological conditions 83. In another study in Greece, a reduction in NO2 was further attributed to a reduction in vehicle emissions 42. NOx reduced in the Ostrava region due to traffic loss during lockdown. PM2.5 contamination analysis showed that home heating is the main source of PM2.5 in the region. The highest decrease in PM2.5 concentration at Ostrava Českobratrská traffic station was due to vehicle traffic reduction 84. In Hungary, 20 to 50% reduction of road traffic decreased NOx and increased O3 and PM10 during lockdown 85. New York has experienced a sharp decline in air pollution in during the COVID-19, but this decline was high in exchange for social and economic costs 86. Unstable economic growth has increased the emission of pollutants (PM2.5 and NO2) in New York 87. Increasing PM10 in California can be related to the growing increase in the fires around California 45. In Phoenix, the lack of CO and NO2 concentrations and the dramatic decrease in PM10 indicate that reduced travel did not reduce emissions, since people were still traveling home on local roads 88. In Chile, an increase in the concentration of O3 can be explained by considering complex atmospheric photochemical reactions including a mixture of VOC and NOx. The reduction of NOx increases the OH radicals that react with VOC and produces more O3. NOx showed the highest decrease among all the studied pollutants that could be related to traffic loss 47. Also, PM2.5 in the open space caused by wood heating increased in prosperous areas89. In Mexico, a low-traffic monitoring station has had the highest reduction in pollutants 17. COVID-19 lockdown reduced the level of traffic-related pollutants (NO2, PM2.5, and CO) and improved air quality in Morocco. This unique scenario might be due to the reduction of transnational pollution as a result of neighboring nations' lockdown measures 53. Given that more than 900 million people in Africa rely on air-polluting energy sources such as domestic appliances, white oil, and coal, CO levels have been minimally reduced. Millions in Africa live in small houses with inappropriate building materials, which can increase air pollution 90. NO2 reduction in New Zealand can be related to removing greenhouse gas emissions 51.
Conclusion
Based on global studies, ambient air quality was significantly affected by the prevalence of COVID-19. In the lockdown period, the reduction of most air pollutants except O3 was observed in many countries. But, after restarting work activities the pollutants concentrations increased again.
Therefore, policies used during lockdown period including traffic control, reduced industrial activity, transport constraints, reduction of polluted emissions, and restrictions in human activities can lead to improvement of air quality. Laws enforced during lockdown can be introduced as an appropriate option in resource planning and intervention policies to reduce air pollution. There is also a significant relationship between PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 and the risk of COVID-19 incidence and death, indicating that air pollution exacerbates the disease's prevalence and fatality. As a result, decreasing air pollution is of importance in reducing the pandemic. The findings of this study may be relevant to public health policymakers and decision-makers seeking to reduce COVID-19 prevalence.
Acknowledgements
The present study has been approved by
Kashan University of Medical Sciences with the ethics code IR.KAUMS.NUHEPM.REC.1400.043. Thanks are owed to the relevant authorities.
Funding
This study was supported by Kashan University of Medical Sciences.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
This is an Open-Access article distributed in accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon this work for commercial use.
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Type of Study: Narrative review |
Subject:
Environmental Health, Sciences, and Engineering
Received: 2023/05/5 | Accepted: 2023/07/10 | Published: 2023/09/30
Received: 2023/05/5 | Accepted: 2023/07/10 | Published: 2023/09/30
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